The ancient capital of Vietnam through the eyes of modern scholars

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Discovering Vietnam’s Ancient Capital. The Archaeology and History of the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long–Hanoi. Edited by Andrew Hardy and Nguyễn Tiến Đông. Singapore: NUS Press, 2024. 355 p. ISBN 978-981-325-229-5

Archaeological excavations of the imperial citadel from 2002 to 2004 opened a page in the historical past of the ancient capital, which had practically been erased from the memory of the inhabitants of modern Vietnam. The imperial citadel of Thang Long has a thousand-year history as the capital of Dai Viet and as the residence of the ruling dynasties of Ly, Tran, and Le. However, until the beginning of the 21st century, the citadel, along with its exact location and architectural ensemble, was known only from rare historical records found in books and on maps, as well as from individual geographical names and legends. It would not be an exaggeration to say that the excavations on Hoang Diеu Street, conducted by the Institute of Archaeology of the Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences from 2002 to 2004, were an event of great importance and marked the beginning of the reconstruction of the imperial citadel. The study of the stratigraphy of the excavation site revealed a complex of cultural layers related to the periods before the emergence of Thang Long Citadel, the period of its existence and the modern era of Hanoi. The area of ​​archaeological work has been repeatedly visited by representatives of the academic community, leaders of the Communist Party and the government of Vietnam, as well as many foreigners, including heads of state. The discovery of Thang Long Citadel is one of the most significant moments in the study of Vietnam’s history and culture, which has been recognized at the international level: in 2010, this historical and archaeological monument was included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The presented monograph is richly illustrated, in addition to the preface and introduction, it includes two large sections, each containing six chapters. The monograph is supplemented by historical and geographical maps, a bibliography, a dictionary and a list of names and titles.

The first section, “Excavations of the Citadel as Historical Event”, includes essays – essentially reports – by archaeologists about their work. The scientists discuss the progress and results of the excavations, the scientific debates and discussions that arose, about moments of confusion and research insight, about their despair and excitement when studying numerous archaeological finds, about the atmosphere that reigned at the excavation site. In Chapter 1, Tong Trung Tin summarizes the research that preceded the excavations from 2002 to 2004 and provides a detailed report on the progress of the excavations. He notes that the architectural artefacts and remains of buildings, as well as palace utensils, ceramics and weapons found indicate a high level of art from that historical period, the cultural identity of Vietnam, and close trade ties between Thang Long and other regions. Many Chinese ceramics were imported to Thang Long from the 7^th to 9^th centuries until the 19th century. Japanese ceramics from Hizen Province of the late 17th century was also discovered, as well as fragments of pottery from other countries, including the Middle East. Pottery and bricks with raised inscriptions in the Cham language reflect the long-standing historical ties between Vietnam and Champa. In conclusion, Tong Trung Tin assesses the historical significance of these archaeological materials today.

The next chapter, written by the archaeologist Le Thi Lien, who supervised the work, describes the excavations of palaces and outbuildings, and outlines the daily problems that fieldworkers faced at the site. The author laments that the excavations stopped at a point where only a small area of the main layers of ​​the ancient citadel of Thang Long was uncovered. The information obtained from the excavations sheds light on human activities over a period of thousands of years, providing data in greater volume and detail than any historical record. In Chapter 3, Nguyen Hong Kien reflects on how the excavation results changed his understanding of the historical architecture of Vietnam. A significant factor in studying the construction of the citadel was the discovery of additional foundations at the base of the fortress. Even in areas where the earthen foundations were relatively stable, the researchers found structures supporting stone plinths. It was concluded that the architectural structures were much larger in scale than previously thought.

In the next chapter, Nguyen Van Anh describes the problems he encountered while studying the stratigraphy of the site and identifying three layers corresponding to three main historical periods. The stratigraphy of the site shows the transportation of older clays from neighboring provinces as foundation material, which was a common practice. The architectural remains studied, including the foundations of the palace, roads, drainage ditches, etc., indicate that the construction of the citadel was scientifically planned and that natural features such as trees, lakes and ponds were incorporated into the architectural design. In Chapter 5, a young historian, Do Danh Huan, who was invited to the excavations due to a shortage of qualified archaeological personnel, describes his attempts to understand the interpretation of archaeological and historical questions raised by the use of brick building materials at the site. those of the excavations.

Chapter 6 is a report by the then Director, Nguyen Van Son, on the conservation and development work and procedures that led to the inscription of the Imperial Citadel on the UNESCO World Heritage List and the establishment of an archaeological park. The research and conservation work at the cultural heritage site serves the long-term goal of creating a historical and cultural park in the heart of the Vietnamese capital. The discovered remains of structures from the Ly, Tran and Early Le dynasties confirm that the architectural core of the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long remained unchanged throughout these dynastic periods.

The second section, “Research into the History of the Citadel,” presents the results of historical research on the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long.

Chapter 7 is an essay by historian Dao Hung on why the people of Hanoi in the late 20th century had so few memories of the Imperial Citadel of Thang Long. After the capital was moved south to Hue, the abandoned citadel area was eventually occupied by the military, and in the late 19th century, after partial destruction by the French colonial authorities, the ruins were completely rebuilt as barracks for the Hanoi garrison. Chapter 8 covers the early history of the site of modern Hanoi, when it was part of the Tang Dynasty. Franciscus Verellen provides a historical essay on the 9th-century Chinese military leader Gao Pian, who founded the city and later became famous as its founder. The architect of the medieval Hanoi citadel and large-scale defensive and communication structures in several border areas of China and Vietnam was an outstanding figure in the military and political history of both countries. Having played a key role in precipitating the death throes of China's Tang Dynasty and the birth of Vietnam, Gao Pian became the object of local cults during his lifetime, particularly in Vietnam and Sichuan, where his impressive engineering feats and contributions to peace and prosperity were attributed to divine inspiration.

 Chapter 9, by historian Phan Huy Le, examines the placement of the Forbidden City of the Ly, Tran, and Le dynasties within the structure of the imperial citadel. The structure of the citadel is described, with particular attention to the Forbidden City and its development throughout history. The author focuses on some of the buildings within the Forbidden City but does not delve into the layout and architecture of the imperial palaces or the political, social, and architectural relationships between the Forbidden City and the area outside its walls. Phan Huy Le also provides additional evidence that the archaeological excavations of 2002–2004 and the Hanoi Citadel of the Nguyen Dynasty were indeed located in the central part of the Forbidden City of Thang Long.

In Chapter 10, Nguyen Tien Dong describes the influence of Champa on medieval Vietnamese culture by comparing archaeological materials found in Hanoi with Champa artifacts of the same period. The author argues that non-Chinese civilizations (using Champa as an example) served as an additional resource for Vietnamese culture, contributing to the development of national culture, reducing Chinese cultural influence, and emphasizing the uniqueness of Vietnamese identity.

In Chapter 11, Pham Van Trieu compares data from old maps and chronicles with archaeological finds. The exact location of the boundaries of the Thang Long Citadel is still a controversial issue. Old illustrated documents provide ​insight into ​the capital of Thang Long as compiled by the Vietnamese, and they remain indispensable for scholars studying the structure and location of the citadel. The final chapter of the book, written by Olivier Tessier, is devoted to the study of the history from the decline of the citadel's significance in the 19th century, during the reign of the Nguyen dynasty, to the final destruction of Thang Long by the French colonial authorities. The work involved court chronicles and colonial archives. The author identifies two main stages in the destruction of the citadel. In the first half of the 19th century, during the time of the first emperors of the Nguyen dynasty, construction reforms took place aimed at reducing the symbolic significance of Thang Long due to the transfer of the capital to Hue. The second stage dates back to the end of the 19th century and is associated with the radical reconstruction of Hanoi by the French colonial administration, resulting in the near-total destruction of the fortress. The author notes that the elements of the architectural ensemble of the Thang Long Citadel that have survived to this day (the Northern Gate, the Gate of Initiation, and the Flag Tower) were saved from destruction by the staff of the French School of the Far East (École Française d’Extrême-Orient).

In addition to a broad overview of information sources and an accessible presentation of the material, the monograph:

• examines the main conceptual approaches to the analysis of complex historical and cultural sites, such as the imperial citadel of Thang Long;
• presents options for classifying historical events associated with the existence of such historical and cultural phenomenon, such as the imperial citadel of Thamlong;
• pays attention to the contradictions generated by different approaches to the study and preservation of historical and archaeological objects and the specifics of their manifestations in various areas of life and human activity.

Undoubtedly, this monograph may be of interest to historians, orientalists, archaeologists. It can be used by students of various higher educational institutions, postgraduate students and teachers.

About the authors

Alexander V. Kandyba

Author for correspondence.
Email: arhkandyba@gmail.com
ORCID iD: 0000-0003-0985-9121

Ph.D. (Histoty), Senior Researcher

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