Membrane-dependent reactions of blood coagulation: classical view and state-of-the-art concepts

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The complex mechanism called hemostasis evolved in living organisms to prevent blood loss when a blood vessel is damaged. In this process, two closely interconnected systems are distinguished: platelet-vascular and plasmatic hemostasis. Plasmatic hemostasis is a system of proteolytic reactions, in which blood plasma proteins called coagulation factors are involved. A key feature of this system is the localization of enzymatic reactions on the surface of phospholipid membranes, which increases their rate by up to 5 orders of magnitude. This review describes the basic mechanisms of coagulation factors binding to phospholipid membranes, pathways for complex assembly and activation reactions, and discusses the role of membranes in this process, their composition and sources. The binding of coagulation factors to procoagulant membranes leads not only to the acceleration of coagulation reactions, but also to their selective localization in restricted areas and protection from being washed away by the flow. The efficiency of coagulation reactions is regulated by the composition of the outer layer of the membrane, primarily through a special mechanism of mitochondria-dependent necrotic platelet death.

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T. Kovalenko

Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences; Dmitry Rogachev National Medical Research Centеr of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Immunology

编辑信件的主要联系方式.
Email: after-ten@yandex.ru
俄罗斯联邦, Moscow, 109029; Moscow, 119991

M. Panteleev

Center for Theoretical Problems of Physicochemical Pharmacology, Russian Academy of Sciences; Dmitry Rogachev National Medical Research Centеr of Pediatric Hematology, Oncology and Immunology; Lomonosov Moscow State University

Email: after-ten@yandex.ru

Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University

俄罗斯联邦, Moscow, 109029; Moscow, 119991; Moscow, 119991

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2. Fig. 1. Simplified scheme of blood coagulation reactions. Roman numerals denote coagulation factors (V, VII, VIII, IX, X, XI, XII), the suffix "a" is used to denote the active form. II – prothrombin, Fb – fibrinogen, Fg – fibrin, TFPI – tissue factor pathway inhibitor, TF – tissue factor, S, Z – proteins S and Z, PCa – activated protein C. Double black line – schematic representation of membrane. Black arrows – catalytic activation, black dotted arrows – formation of complexes, gray gradient arrows – action of enzymatic complex or enzyme on substrate, ▬| – inhibition. To avoid overload, inhibition of coagulation factors by antithrombin and slow reactions of factor activation by enzymes without cofactors are not shown in the scheme.

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3. Fig. 2. The structure of proteins of the blood coagulation system. a – Scheme of the domain composition of individual proteins. Gla – Gla domain; EGF1-4 – EGF1-4 domain; Serine Protease – protease domain; TSR – thrombin-sensitive region; LG – laminin G-like domains; KR – kringle domains; A1-3 – A1-3 domain; C1,2 – C1,2 domain; B – B domain; I – intracellular domain; Tr – transmembrane domain; N, C – N- and C-terminal extracellular domains. b – Structure of factor VIIa. Visualized in VMD, PDB 1dan [59]. Colors according to the secondary structure of the protein. Light blue – turn; yellow – β-sheet; purple – α-helix; blue – 310-helix; white – irregular structure; red – Ca2+ ions. c – Gla domains of human factor VIIa (colors according to secondary structure as in panel b, PDB 1dan) and bovine prothrombin (yellow, PDB 1nl2 [58]). The structures are aligned in VMD, RMSD (root mean square deviation between corresponding main chain atoms) = 3.31 Å. In factor VIIa, γ-carboxyglutamate residues bound to Ca2+ ions are visualized.

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4. Fig. 3. Concentration of coagulation factors in the platelet cap. DIC image obtained by differential interference contrast; in the center (Factor X) is the epifluorescence image in the factor X channel, on the right (Overlay) is the superposition of the first two images. The yellow arrow marks the cap [115].

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5. Fig. 4. Structures of enzymatic complexes. a – Extrinsic tenase. Green – factor VIIa; blue – TF. Visualized in VMD, PDB 1dan [59]. b – Prothrombinase. Gray – factor Va; red – factor Xa. Visualized in VMD, PDB 7tpq [13].

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